The European Astronomical Union (EAU) designated the year 2019, as the “Year of Astronomy Literacy,” prompting countries worldwide to place greater emphasis on space and astronomy education and to adjust their curricula accordingly. Integrating astronomy literacy into the social studies curriculum is particularly crucial, as the course aims to educate citizens who are able to adapt to evolving national and global conditions and who possess strong problem-solving capabilities. The purpose of this study is to equip the seventh-grade students with cognitive, affective and behavioral competencies related to astronomy literacy within the context of the social studies course. The Astronomy Literacy Scale developed by Özdemir was administered as both a pre-test and a post-test. The research was conducted in Yenişehir district of Bursa, one of Turkey’s provinces, during the first semester of the 2023-2024 academic year. The study employed a quasiexperimental design involving 22 students in the experimental group and 22 in the control group. The instructional application was implemented over a five-week period, with two class hours per week. Data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical software package. Following the application, ‘t was found that there were statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups across the cognitive, affective and behavioral domains, consistently favoring the experimental group. The findings indicated that the instructional practices integrated into the social studies course contributed meaningfully to the students’ astronomy literacy and improved their cognitive, affective and behavioral astronomy-related skills.
From antiquity to the present, the existence of the universe, the motion of celestial bodies, and the sun’s role as a source of heat and light have sustained human curiosity and driven efforts to investigate and comprehend the cosmic phenomena. The systematic organization of accumulated knowledge eventually gave rise to the science of astronomy. Astronomy literacy refers to the ability to understand and critically evaluate the universe, outer space, celestial bodies, and the movements that occur within these domains (Benli-Özdemir, 2023). In this day and age, individuals are required to possess a basic capacity to understand and question the physical environment they inhabit, along with the dynamic processes unfolding on Earth and throughout the universe. Such competence is attainable through the development of effective astronomy literacy skills. Individuals with advanced astronomy literacy demonstrate strong spatial and abstract thinking, are able to interpret maps and navigate effectively, can infer the consequences of Earth’s and other planets’ movements, and can meaningfully interpret the developments related to space exploration and research (Taşcan & Ünal, 2015).
The social studies course is an interdisciplinary domain that integrates the social sciences and humanities with the aim of developing essential citizenship competencies (Keskin, Coşkun Keskin, & Taş, 2019). Social studies as a formal subject originated in the United States in 1916 and was implemented in schools beginning in 1920. The National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies (NCSS), the leading authority on social studies education in the U.S., emphasized in its 1994 definition that the field encompassed not only the social and human sciences but also drew upon concepts from the natural sciences. At the primary level, the concepts and skills related to astronomy were typically introduced through life sciences courses, whereas at the secondary level they were primarily taught through science and social studies courses.
As far as review of the relevant literature’s concerned, there is a substantial body of studies concerning astronomy and astronomy literacy. These studies include those that highlighted the importance of astronomy within the educational contexts (Albrecht & Voelzke, 2010; Erbudak & Yeşilbursa, 2023; Eriksson, 2019; Percy, 2005; Pompea & Russo, 2020; Rosenberg, Bladon, Russo, & Christensen, 2014; Slater, Slater, & Dwyer, 2010); investigations examining students’ metaphors and perceptions related to the concept of astronomy (Arıkurt, Durukan, & Şahin, 2015; Bitzenbauer, Navarrete, Hennig, Ubben, & Veith, 2023; Güleç & Çelik, 2022; Grubic, 2022; Çelik, Güleç, & Atasoy, 2025; Karamustafaoğlu & Aktürk, 2016; Uçar & Aktamış, 2019); and studies analyzing teachers’ and preservice teachers’ attitudes and perspectives toward astronomy (Kuzey, 2020; Yeşil-Asana & Benzer, 2020; Erbudak & Yeşilbursa, 2024; Ezberci Çevik, Bozdemir, Candan Helvacı, & Kurnaz, 2020; Canlas, Picardal, & Picardal, 2024). Furthermore, while some other studies focused on astronomy as a disciplinary subject (Plummer, 2009; Blown & Bryce, 2018; Shen & Confrey, 2007; Yerlikaya & Yerlikaya, 2016; Merakchi, 2018; Eriksson, 2019; Salimpour & Fitzgerald, 2022; Salimpour et al., 2024; Likavcan, 2024), others on studies that established connections between social studies and astronomy (Ekiz & Akbaş, 2006; Berea et al., 2019; Güleç & Çelik, 2022; Erbudak & Yeşilbursa, 2023).
Astronomy literacy over the years has come to be investigated from multiple perspectives within the relevant literature. The studies emphasizing the significance of astronomy literacy were prominent (Alejandro, 2007; Çelik & Güleç, 2025; Love, Murphy & Bonora, 2013; Remie, 2019; Yerlikaya & Yerlikaya, 2016). Additionally, several studies focused on developing the instructional programs aimed at improving the astronomy literacy (Aranbica, Pinochet, & Campusano, 2021; Salimpour, Fitzgerald, & Hollow, 2024; Ünal, 2024), while others assessed students’ levels of astronomy literacy and related competencies (Benli Özdemir, 2022; Benli Özdemir, 2023; De Beasi, Orellana, Escapil, & Olaizola, 2015). Given that the studies in astronomy literacy is crucial for cultivating a deeper understanding of the universe in which we live, it is essential to provide the students with the astronomy literacy skills and to explore the effective methods for fostering their development. Therefore, the present study aimed to enhance seventh-grade students’ cognitive, affective and behavioral astronomy literacy skills through a five-week instructional program consisting of two-hour sessions each week.
The study first examined the learning areas where astronomy is included in the 2018 social studies curriculum. The examination revealed that information related to astronomy is included in the learning areas of Individual and Society, Culture and Heritage, People, Places and Environment, and Global Connections. In the 2018 Science Curriculum, learning outcomes and skills related to astronomy are addressed more intensively, with a separate learning area called Earth and the Universe (Çelik, 2024). While science education focuses more on cognitive domains, social studies education should include skills related to affective and behavioral domains in relation to astronomy. To this end, learning outcomes related to astronomy can be added to the existing learning areas (Ekiz & Akbaş, 2006; Çelik, 2024).
This study examined the effect of instructional practices designed to develop astronomy literacy on the seventh-grade students’ astronomy literacy scores, comparing the experimental and control groups through pre-test and post-test measurements. Specifically, the study sought answers to the following research questions:
Is there a statistically significant difference, between the experimental and control groups’ pre-test and post-test mean scores on the overall Astronomy Literacy Scale?
Is there a statistically significant difference, between the experimental and control groups’ pre-test and post-test mean scores on the cognitive dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale?
Is there a statistically significant difference, between the experimental and control groups’ pre-test and post-test mean scores on the affective dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale?
Is there a statistically significant difference, between the experimental and control groups’ pre-test and post-test mean scores on the behavioral dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale?
This section presents the procedural steps followed throughout the study, detailing the implementation process from the initial preparation phase to data collection and analysis.
Experimental studies are conducted in an attempt to identify the effect of conditions deliberately created or manipulated by the researcher on a dependent variable (Akcan, 2023, p. 90). Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2011) described the experimental studies as the systematic observation of outcomes that occurred when specific applications or treatments were introduced. In the field of education, experimental methods are frequently employed in order to compare the instructional approaches and to assess the extent of learners’ progress. Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz and Demirel (2014) classified the experimental studies into two main categories: single-factor and multi-factor designs. They further stated that multi-factorial designs could be divided into four types; weak experimental designs, true experimental designs, factorial designs, and quasi-experimental designs.
This study used a quasi-experimental design developed by Campbell and Stanley (1996). This is because a quasi-experimental design gives the researcher the opportunity to test the tools they have developed
In order to ensure the internal validity, equivalent experimental and control groups were established. The independent variables of the study were the students’ group assignment (experimental or control) and their gender, while the dependent variable was their astronomy literacy skill level.
Validity refers to the extent to which a scale measures the construct it is intended to measure without capturing the unrelated characteristics. Reliability, on the other hand, concerns the degree to which a scale consistently and accurately measures the phenomenon for which it was designed (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2018). The study included the opinions of two experts: a linguistics specialist and a social studies education specialist. In order to ensure the content validity of the Astronomy Literacy Scale and the scale was administered to a total of 16 students so as to establish whether the items were interpreted as intended. According to the results of the Exploratory Factor Analysis, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) coefficient of the scale was calculated as .702, and it was found that the average reliability coefficient was .75. These values indicated that the scale was both valid and reliable for measuring astronomy literacy.
In the present study, initially the necessary permissions were first obtained from Benli Özdemir (2022), the developer of the Astronomy Literacy Scale. Following this, the scale was reviewed by a Turkish language expert and the required adaptations were made. Since it was not ethically appropriate to disclose the actual class sections, the students who participated voluntarily and submitted parental consent forms were selected from the sections designated as 7H and 7G. The scale used in both the pre-test and post-test was comprised of three dimensions; cognitive, affective and behavioral. Initially, the pre-test was administered to both the experimental and control groups. One week after the pre-test, a 10-lesson astronomy literacy instructional plan was implemented by the researcher. The astronomy literacy outcomes were developed by the practitioner, with careful attention to aligning them with the relevant topics in the social studies curriculum. The specific learning achievements addressed in each application are presented in Table 1 below.
| Application | Achievement | Sub- | Method | Resource | Evaluation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1-2 | Students can analyze the role of media in social change and interaction. | Students can analyze celestial bodies through social media platforms, and they may develop positive attitudes toward the lives and responsibilities of astronauts as a result of these engagements. | Instruction through media-based teaching complemented by the question-and-answer method. | NASAYouTubeSpacekamp Turkey videos | Students are asked to imagine themselves as astronauts and write a reflective account of a typical day in the life of an astronaut. |
| 3-4 | Students can analyze the role of media in social change and interaction. | Students can follow astronomy-related developments through media applications such as Google Sky, Google Maps, StarWalk, and NASA platforms. | Instruction through media-based teaching complemented by the question-and-answer method. | NASAstar walkSkymapgoogle earth Googlemap | Students are asked to use these applications to ask one another questions and to identify objects in space as well as objects on Earth. |
| 5-6 | Students can develop an understanding of the processes that compelled the Ottoman Empire to undergo change, particularly in relation to contemporaneous developments in Europe. | Students can develop an interest in learning about astronomical developments that took place in Europe during the Early Modern and Modern periods. | Lecture method, question and answer method, | visual information cards | Students are asked to play the astro game “Söyleçiztabu” and explain the picture cards and again explain the information cards this time by drawing. |
| 7-8 | Students can draw inferences about the factors influencing human settlement from past to present by engaging in case study analyses. | Based on the factors influencing human settlement, students can recognize the necessity of astronomy studies for the future and follow current developments in the field of astronomy. | Lecture method Case study method | Question and answer method Case study from the eyes of an astronaut | A case study titled "From the perspective of the astronaut" is distributed to the students, and they are asked to read this case, answer the follow-up questions, and fill in the missing parts of the text. |
| 9-10 | Students can evaluate the effects of advancements in production technology on social and economic life. | Students can research the effects of astronomy-related spacecraft on social and economic life. | Narration methodQuestion and answer method Evidence-based teaching method | Information cards related to spacecraft and discourses concerning Turkey’s space studies. Students can solve concept puzzles related to spacecraft. | The class conducts a panel study on spacecraft, during which the contributions of spacecraft technology to the national economy and to individuals’ daily lives are evaluated. |
The instructional applications were implemented with the experimental group. One week after the completion of these applications, the post-test was administered to both the experimental and control groups.
According to Karasar (2018), the sampling process in a research study is shaped by factors such as the research method, purpose, accessibility, and the degree of control that can be maintained. In the present study, the participants were selected using the convenience sampling, a type of non-random sampling method. Convenience sampling involves choosing a sample that is readily available and easily accessible to the researcher
This study was conducted in Turkey. The sample of the study consisted of 22 seventh-grade students enrolled in a school affiliated with the Ministry of National Education in the Yenişehir district of Bursa during the first semester of the 2023–2024 academic year. A total of 44 students participated: 22 in the experimental group and 22 in the control group. In selecting the classes to be included in the study, the information regarding students’ academic achievement levels and socioeconomic backgrounds was obtained from the classroom teachers. The classes with similar achievement levels and balanced gender distributions were chosen. Both the experimental and control groups were coded separately by gender. Each group consisted of 22 students, including 11 girls and 11 boys, ensuring equivalence in terms of the gender variable. The students who did not submit parental consent forms were excluded from the study. In order to uphold the ethical standards, all participant information was kept confidential.
After the Astronomy Literacy Scale was administered to the experimental group as a pre-test, a five-week astronomy literacy skill development program was implemented. For this purpose, lesson plans and activities developed by the researcher were utilized. In the social studies lesson plans, 10 lesson plans related to cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions utilized teaching methods such as media-based instruction, question-and-answer method, lecture, case study instruction, and evidence-based teaching. Additionally, the researcher designed activities such as flashcards about spacecraft, concept puzzles, a case study from the astronaut's perspective, and an astronomy-related "draw, speak, draw, taboo, astronomy" game. For detailed information on the implemented methods, please refer to Table 1. In alignment with the learning achievements in the social studies curriculum, the sub-achievements related to astronomy were created. As an example of learning outcomes and sub-outcomes, the following sub-outcome has been created for the learning outcome “Discuss the role of media in social change and interaction” in the 7th grade Individual and society learning area: “Analyzes celestial bodies in space through social media. Develops positive attitudes towards the lives and missions of astronauts.” For detailed information about social studies learning outcomes and sub-outcomes please refer to Table 1. Instructional activities were designed to enhance students’ affective and behavioral dispositions toward astronomy, in addition to supporting their cognitive development. Following the administration of the pre-test to the control group, the lesson taught proceeded according to the standard Ministry of National Education curriculum without the inclusion of the astronomy literacy application.
Evidence indicates that the
Data were collected from both the experimental and control groups as a pre-test during the study period, after which the application was initiated. One week following the completion of the application, a post-test was administered to both groups. The quantitative data obtained for the study were analyzed using the SPSS 24 statistical software package. Prior to conducting inferential analyses, the distribution of the data was examined to determine whether it met the assumptions of normality. Initially, measures of central tendency, that is, mode, median and mean were reviewed. The close proximity of these values was considered an important indicator of normal distribution. Subsequently, skewness and kurtosis coefficients were analyzed. The fact that these coefficients fell within the acceptable range (+2/−2), combined with a non-significant result in the test of homogeneity of variances (p > .05), suggested that the data were normally distributed. As the sample size in each group was fewer than 50 participants, the Shapiro–Wilk test was also employed to assess normality. The non-significant Shapiro–Wilk values further confirmed that the data did not deviate from normality. Accordingly, parametric statistical tests were utilized in the data analysis. A dependent samples t-test was applied to compare the related groups and an independent samples t-test was utilized for comparisons between the unrelated groups. The Shapiro–Wilk test results for the normality analysis are presented in Table 2 below.
Normality Test Result
| Shapiro-Wilk | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Statistic | Df | Sig | |
| Pre-test scale | ,975 | 44 | ,441 |
| Pre-test cognitive Dimension | ,973 | 44 | ,385 |
| Pre-test Affective Dimension | ,973 | 44 | ,381 |
| Pre-test Behavioral Dimension | ,976 | 44 | ,487 |
| Post-test Scale | ,969 | 44 | ,275 |
| Post-test cognitive Dimension | ,969 | 44 | ,284 |
| Post-test Affective Dimension | ,934 | 44 | ,014 |
| Post-test Behavioral Dimension | ,953 | 44 | ,069 |
The results of the quantitative data analyses were systematically tabulated and interpreted in the findings section.
The researcher conducted the study at the school where she was employed. Following the administration of the pre-test to both the experimental and control groups during the same week, without introducing any application, the instructional treatment was initiated in the experimental group and continued for five weeks. Each week, two class hours from the social studies course were allocated to the application activities on the predetermined dates. The implementation phase concluded at the end of the five-week period. One week after the completion of the application, the post-test was administered to the students in both the experimental and control groups.
Ethical approval for the present study was obtained from the Bursa Uludağ University Social and Humanities Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Decision No. 2023/07; Date: 25.07.2023).
Materials and methods are the second section of an IMRAD paper. Its purpose is to describe the experiment in such retail that a competent colleague could repeat the experiment and obtain the some or equivalent results. Provide sufficient detail to allow the work to be reproduced. Methods already published should be indicated by a reference: only relevant modifications should be described.
Under this heading, the findings related to the four sub-questions are presented and examined under separate sub-sections.
Is there a statistically significant difference, between the experimental and control groups’ pre-test and post-test mean scores on the overall Astronomy Literacy Scale? Table 3 illustrates the dependent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by the students in the experimental group on the Astronomy Literacy Scale (ALS).
Dependent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Astronomy Literacy Scores of the Students in the Experimental Group
| N | Mean | Ss | Sd | T | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 3,27 | ,48 | 21 | -9,34 | ,000 |
| Post-test | 22 | 4,12 | ,33 |
An examination of Table 3 indicates a statistically significant difference between the pre-test mean score (3.27) and the post-test mean score (4.12) of the students in the experimental group [t(21) = –9.34, p < .05]. The mean scores showed that this significant difference favored the post-test, suggesting that the application contributed to an improvement in students’ astronomy literacy levels.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Astronomy Literacy Scores of the Students in the Control Group? Table 4 presents the dependent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by the students in the control group on the Astronomy Literacy Scale (ALS).
Dependent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Astronomy Literacy Scores of the Students in the Control Group
| N | Mean | Ss | Sd | T | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 3,36 | ,49 | 21 | 2,699 | ,01 |
| Post-test | 22 | 3,32 | ,48 |
An examination of Table 4 shows that there was a statistically significant difference between the pre-test mean score (3.36) and the post-test mean score (3.32) of the students in the control group [t(21) = 2.70, p < .05]. However, the difference between the two mean scores was minimal.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Astronomy Literacy Scores of the Students in the Experimental and Control Groups? Table 4 presents the independent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained from the Astronomy Literacy Scale (ALS) by students in the experimental and control groups.
Independent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Astronomy Literacy Scores of the Students in the Experimental and Control Groups
| Groups | N | X | Ss | Sd | t | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | Experimental | 22 | 3,27 | ,49 | 42 | -,653 | ,518 |
| Control | 22 | 3,36 | ,50 | 42 | |||
| Post-test | Experimental | 22 | 4,13 | ,34 | 42 | 6,390 | ,000 |
| Control | 22 | 3,32 | ,49 | 42 |
An examination of Table 5 shows that there was no statistically significant difference between the pre-test astronomy literacy scores of the experimental and control groups, as indicated by the similarity in their mean scores [t(42) = –0.65, p > .05]. However, a comparison of the post-test scores revealed a statistically significant difference between the two groups [t(42) = 6.39, p < .05]. This finding suggested that the instructional application provided to the experimental group had a positive impact on their astronomy literacy levels.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Astronomy Literacy Scores of the Students in the Experimental and Control Groups by Gender? Table 6 presents the independent samples t-test results conducted to establish whether the pre-test and post-test scores obtained from the Astronomy Literacy Scale (ALS) by the students in the experimental and control groups differed by gender.
Independent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups by Gender
| Group | Gender | Process | X | ss | Sd | t | P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental | Male | Pre-test-Post-test | -1,00 | ,43 | 10 | -7,644 | ,000 |
| Female | Pre-test- Post-test | -0,71 | ,40 | 10 | -6,03 | ,000 | |
| Control | Male | Pre-test- Post-test | 0,73 | ,09 | 10 | 2,797 | ,019 |
| Female | Pre-test- Post-test | ,020 | ,08 | 10 | 1,00 | ,341 |
An examination of Table 6 shows that there was a statistically significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of both male students [t(10) = –7.64, p < .05] and female students [t(10) = –6.03, p < .05] in the experimental group. In contrast, it was found that there was no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of male students [t(10) = 2.80, p > .05] or female students [t(10) = 1.00, p > .05] in the control group. Considering the degree of change observed among the male and female students in the experimental group, the results suggested that male students exhibited greater improvement in astronomy literacy following the application.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores on the Cognitive Dimension of Astronomy Literacy for the Students in the Experimental Group? Table 7 presents the dependent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by the students in the experimental group on the cognitive dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale. The findings are summarized below.
Dependent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Students in the Experimental Group on the Cognitive Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale
| N | Mean | Ss | sd | T | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 3,35 | ,54 | 21 | -5,265 | ,000 |
| Post-test | 22 | 3,99 | ,44 |
An examination of Table 7 indicates a statistically significant difference between the pre-test mean score (3.35) and the post-test mean score (3.99) of the students in the experimental group [t(21) = –5.27, p < .05]. The comparison of mean scores showed that this difference favored the post-test, with students achieving higher scores following the application. This particular finding suggested that in addition to the targeted instructional activities aimed at developing the cognitive dimension of astronomy literacy, the cumulative learning that occurred throughout the process contributed positively to the students’ cognitive perception. It may also be inferred that students’ confidence in their astronomy-related knowledge improved after the application.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Students in the Control Group on the Cognitive Dimension of Astronomy Literacy? Table 8 presents the dependent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by the students in the control group on the cognitive dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale. The findings are summarized below.
Dependent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores on the Cognitive Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale for the Students in the Control Group
| N | Mean | Ss | Sd | T | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 3,50 | ,56 | 21 | ,358 | ,724 |
| Post-test | 22 | 3,49 | ,50 |
An examination of Table 8 reveals that there was no statistically significant difference between the pre-test mean score (3.50) and the post-test mean score (3.49) of the students in the control group [t(21) = 0.36, p > .05]. This result indicated that the cognitive dimension scores of the control group did not change from pre-test to post-test, suggesting that students' cognitive astronomy literacy remained stable in the absence of the application.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores on the Cognitive Dimension of Astronomy Literacy for the Students in the Experimental and Control Groups? Table 9 presents the independent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by the students in the experimental and control groups on the cognitive dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale. The findings are summarized below.
Independent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores on the Cognitive Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale for the Students in the Experimental and Control Groups
| Groups | N | X | Ss | sd | t | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | Experimental | 22 | 3,35 | ,54 | 42 | -,935 | ,355 |
| Control | 22 | 3,50 | ,56 | 42 | |||
| Post-test | Experimental | 22 | 3,99 | ,44 | 42 | 3,469 | ,001 |
| Control | 22 | 3,49 | ,51 | 42 |
An examination of Table 9 indicates that there was no statistically significant difference between the pre-test cognitive dimension scores of the experimental and control groups, as reflected in their similar mean scores [t(42) = –0.94, p > .05]. However, comparison of the post-test scores revealed a statistically significant difference between the two groups [t(42) = 3.47, p < .05]. This finding suggested that the instructional application administered to the experimental group had a positive impact on students' cognitive astronomy literacy.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores on the Cognitive Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale for the Students in the Experimental and Control Groups by Gender? Table 7 presents the pre-test and post-test scores of students in the experimental and control groups on the cognitive dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale. Independent samples t-test results are provided to establish whether these scores differed by gender.
Independent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups by Gender
| Group | Gender | Process | X | Ss | sd | T | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental | Male | Pre-test – Post-test | -,64 | ,61 | 10 | -3,52 | ,00 |
| Female | Pre-test – Post-test | -63 | ,56 | 10 | -3,76 | ,00 | |
| Control | Male | Pre-test – Post-test | ,064 | ,22 | 10 | 1,00 | ,341 |
| Female | Pre-test – Post-test | -,03 | ,09 | 10 | -1,399 | ,192 |
An examination of Table 10 indicates that there was a statistically significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of both male students [t(10) = –3.52,
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores on the Affective Dimension of Astronomy Literacy for Students in the Experimental Group? Table 11 presents the dependent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by the students in the experimental group on the affective dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale. The findings are summarized below.
Dependent Samples t-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Students in the Experimental Group on the Affective Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale.
| N | Mean | Ss | Sd | t | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 3,46 | ,60 | 21 | -6,312 | ,000 |
| Post-test | 22 | 4,34 | ,36 |
An examination of Table 11 indicates a statistically significant difference between the pre-test mean score (3.46) and the post-test mean score (4.34) of students in the experimental group [t(21) = –6.312, p < .05]. The comparison of mean scores demonstrated that this significant difference favored the post-test, reflecting a substantial increase in students' affective scores following the application. These results suggested that the instructional activities implemented in the experimental group had a significant and positive effect on students’ affective engagement with astronomy.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores on the Affective Dimension of Astronomy Literacy for the Students in the Control Group? The pre-test and post-test scores of the control group were examined. Table 12 presents the dependent samples t-test results for the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by the students in the control group on the affective dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale.
Dependent samples t-test results on the pre-test and post-test scores of the affective dimension of the astronomy literacy scale of the students in the control group.
| N | Mean | Ss | Sd | T | P | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 3,44 | ,73 | 21 | 3,578 | ,002 |
| Post-test | 22 | 3,37 | ,76 |
An examination of Table 12 indicates that there was no significant difference between the pre-test mean score (M = 3.50) and the post-test mean score (M = 3.44) of the students in the control group [t(21) = 0.36, p > .05]. This finding suggested that the pre-test and post-test scores of the control group did not differ for the affective dimension of astronomy literacy.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pretest and Posttest Scores on the Affective Dimension of Astronomy Literacy for the Students in the Experimental and Control Groups? Table 13 presents the pretest and posttest scores of students in the experimental and control groups for the affective dimension of the astronomy literacy scale. Independent samples t-test results were also reported.
CaIndependent samples t-test on the pre-test and post-test scores of the affective dimension of the astronomy literacy scale of the students in the experimental and control groups.ption ...
| Groups | N | X | Ss | sd | t | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | Experimental | 22 | 3,46 | ,61 | 42 | -,075 | ,941 |
| Control | 22 | 3,45 | ,73 | 42 | |||
| Post-test | Experimental | 22 | 4,34 | ,37 | 42 | 5,348 | ,000 |
| Control | 22 | 3,37 | ,77 | 42 |
An examination of Table 13 indicates that there was no statistically significant difference between the pre-test scores of the affective dimension of astronomy literacy for the experimental and control groups, based on the students' pre-test mean scores [t(42) = 0.8, p > .05]. In contrast, a comparison of the post-test scores revealed a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups [t(42) = 5.35, p < .05]. These results suggested that the instructional application provided to the experimental group had a positive effect.
4.3.4. Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pretest and Posttest Scores of Students in the Experimental and Control Groups on the Affective Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale by Gender? Table 14 presents the pretest and posttest scores of students in the experimental and control groups on the affective dimension of astronomy literacy. Independent samples t-test results are provided to establish whether any differences existed based on gender.
Independent samples t-tests on the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups by gender.
| Group | Gender | Process | X | Ss | sd | t | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental | Male | Pre-test – Post-test | -1,17 | ,72 | 10 | -5,35 | ,00 |
| Female | Pre-test – Post-test | -,59 | ,43 | 10 | -4,48 | ,00 | |
| Control | Male | Pre-test – Post-test | ,06 | ,08 | 10 | 2,39 | ,38 |
| Female | Pre-test – Post-test | ,09 | ,11 | 10 | 2,631 | ,06 |
An examination of Table 14 indicates a significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores of male students in the experimental group [t(10) = -5.35, p < .05] and female students [t(10) = -4.48, p < .05], suggesting a significant effect of the application. In contrast, no significant difference was observed between the pretest and posttest scores of male students [t(10) = 2.39, p > .05] and female students [t(10) = 2.63, p > .05] in the control group. These results suggested that the male students achieved greater affective achievements than the female students.
Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pretest and Posttest Scores of Students in the Experimental Group on the Behavioral Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale? The pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group students on the behavioral dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale were compared. Table 15 presents the results of the dependent samples t-test conducted on the pretest and posttest scores of the students in the experimental group.
Dependent samples t-test results for the experimental group on the behavioral dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale.
| Group | N | Mean | Ss | sd | t | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 2,71 | ,97 | 21 | -7,876 | ,000 |
| Post-test | 22 | 4,01 | ,54 |
An examination of Table 15 indicates a significant difference between the pre-test mean score (2.71) and the post-test mean score (4.01) of the students in the experimental group [t(21) = -7.88, p < .05]. Comparison of the group means showed that this significant difference favored the post-test scores (mean = 4.01).
4.4.2. Is There a Significant Difference Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of Students in the Control Group on the Behavioral Dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale? The pre-test and post-test scores of the control group students on the behavioral dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale were compared. Table 16 presents the results of the dependent samples t-test conducted on the pre-test and post-test scores of the students in the control group.
Dependent samples t-test results for the control group on the behavioral dimension of the Astronomy Literacy Scale.
| Group | N | Mean | Ss | Sd | T | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | 22 | 2,89 | ,83 | 21 | 1,418 | ,171 |
| Post-test | 22 | 2,81 | ,78 |
An examination of Table 16 indicates no significant difference between the pre-test mean score (2.89) and the post-test mean score (2.81) of the control group students [t(21) = 1.42, p > .05]. These results suggested that the pre-test and post-test scores of the control group on the behavioral dimension of astronomy literacy did not differ significantly.
Independent samples t-test on the pre-test and post-test scores of the behavioral dimension of the astronomy literacy scale of students in the experimental and control groups.
| Group | N | X | Ss | Sd | t | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre-test | Experimental | 22 | 2,71 | ,98 | 42 | -,664 | ,510 |
| Control | 22 | 2,89 | ,83 | 42 | |||
| Post-test | Experimental | 22 | 4,01 | ,55 | 42 | 5,84 | ,000 |
| Control | 22 | 2,82 | ,79 | 42 |
An examination of Table 17 indicates that there was no statistically significant difference between the pre-test scores of the experimental and control groups in the behavioral dimension of astronomy literacy, as reflected in the students’ pre-test mean scores [t(42) = -0.66, p > .05]. In contrast, the comparison of post-test scores revealed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups [t(42) = 5.84, p < .05]. These findings suggested that the instructional approach implemented with the experimental group had a positive effect on students’ behavioral astronomy literacy.
Independent samples t-test on the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups, analyzed according to gender.
| Group | Gender | Process | x | Ss | sd | t | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Experimental | Male | Pre-test- Post-test | -1,48 | ,79 | 10 | -6,20 | ,00 |
| Female | Pre-test- Post-test | -1,12 | ,74 | 10 | -4,49 | ,00 | |
| Control | Male | Pre-test- Post-test | ,12 | ,16 | 10 | 2,39 | ,38 |
| Female | Pre-test- Post-test | ,03 | ,31 | 10 | ,319 | ,756 |
An examination of Table 18 indicates that there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of both male [t(10) = -6.20, p < .05] and female [t(10) = -4.49, p < .05] students in the experimental group, suggesting a significant effect of the application. In contrast, no significant difference was observed between the pre-test and post-test scores of the male [t(10) = 2.39, p > .05] or the female [t(10) = 3.19, p > .05] students in the control group. These findings suggested that the male students in the experimental group exhibited more positive behavioral changes toward astronomy compared to the female students in the same group.
The relationship between the scores obtained from the Astronomy Literacy Scale and the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups was examined in the present study. In this sense, an initial analysis was conducted to establish whether there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of students in the experimental group.
The results of the study indicated that the instructional methods, techniques, and activities employed positively influenced the post-test achievements. The students were able to develop their astronomy literacy skills through engaging and interactive approaches, including concept puzzles, question cards, Tell-Tabuastro and other hands-on activities. These methods facilitated the acquisition of various astronomy literacy skills, such as understanding and observing planetary and constellation movements, drawing inferences, interpreting space-related developments and keeping up with scientific advancements. Consequently, these activities contributed to the development of a range of related behavioral competencies (Taşcan & Ünal, 2015; Merakchi, 2018).
It was revealed that there was no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of astronomy literacy among the students in the control group. This suggested that the existing social studies curriculum topics, such as
The study investigated whether there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of astronomy literacy in the experimental and control groups, taking gender into account. The results indicated that the male students in the experimental group achieved higher scores in astronomy literacy compared to the female students. This difference may be attributed to a greater interest in space and astronomy among the male students.
Additionally, the study investigated whether there was a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test score averages of the experimental and control groups in the
No significant difference was found between the pre-test and post-test scores of the students in the control group regarding the
Furthermore, the study examined whether the cognitive achievements differed by gender. The results showed that the male students achieved greater cognitive achievements than the female students, suggesting potential gender-related differences in engagement or responsiveness to the applications.
The study investigated whether there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups in the
No significant difference was found between the control group’s pre-test and post-test scores for the affective dimension of astronomy literacy. This finding indicated that the content covered in the social studies curriculum during the research period was insufficient to enhance the students’ interest and curiosity in the astronomy-related topics. Furthermore, this result supported the conclusion drawn from our review of the social studies textbooks namely, that the textbooks did not adequately foster the astronomy literacy and aligned with the evaluations provided by the participating teachers.
The study revealed a significant difference was between the pre-test and post-test scores of students in the experimental and control groups with respect to the affective dimension of astronomy literacy. This particular finding suggested that interactive applications, such as StarWalk and SkyMap, as well as educational websites (e.g., NASA, TUA, TÜBİTAK) and activities involving concept puzzles and games were effective in fostering the students’ positive attitudes toward astronomy (Aktamış & Arıcı, 2013; Yılmaz, 2019).
While a significant difference was identified between the pre-test and post-test scores related to the affective dimension of astronomy literacy across gender in the experimental group, no such difference emerged in the control group. Within the experimental group, it was found that the male students developed a more positive affective attitude toward astronomy literacy compared to their female counterparts.
The study examined whether there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups on the affective dimension of the astronomy literacy scale. Analysis of the experimental group revealed a significant difference between students’ pre-test and post-test scores in this dimension. This finding indicated that the instructional activities implemented during the application positively impacted the students’ affective attitudes toward astronomy literacy, increased their interest in astronomy and enhanced their curiosity. Previous studies similarly emphasized that incorporating diverse and engaging applications in astronomy instruction increased students’ interest in both the subject and the course (Glover et al., 2007; Ezberci Çevik et al., 2020; Canlas et al., 2024; Çöl & Karaca, 2020).
No significant difference was found between the control group’s pre-test and post-test scores on the affective dimension of astronomy literacy. This finding suggested that the astronomy-related content included in the social studies curriculum during the research period was insufficient to enhance the students’ interest and curiosity in astronomy. Moreover, this result supported the conclusion drawn from our analysis of the social studies textbooks that the textbooks did not adequately promote astronomy literacy and aligned with the teachers’ evaluations indicating similar shortcomings.
The study revealed a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of students in the experimental and control groups regarding the affective dimension of astronomy literacy. This finding indicated that interactive tools such as StarWalk and SkyMap along with educational websites (e.g., NASA, TUA, TÜBİTAK) and activities involving concept puzzles and games, were effective in fostering the students’ positive attitudes toward astronomy (Aktamış & Arıcı, 2013; Arıkurt et al., 2015; Bitzenbauer et al., 2023; Taşcan, 2019; Yılmaz, 2014).
While a significant difference was revealed between the pre-test and post-test scores related to the affective dimension of astronomy literacy across gender in the experimental group, no such difference emerged in the control group. Within the experimental group, it was found that the male students developed a more positive affective attitude toward astronomy literacy than the female students.
The study investigated whether there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups in the behavioral dimension of the astronomy literacy scale. In this context, a significant difference was first identified between the pre-test and post-test scores of the students in the experimental group. This difference indicated that the students exhibited measurable achievements in the behavioral dimension of astronomy literacy. During the application, the students engaged in activities related to the lives of astronauts, utilized sky observation programs such as StarWalk and SkyMap in a structured manner, and were guided in recognizing and effectively using these tools. Consequently, the students developed increased awareness of and positive behavioral tendencies toward space and the sky. These findings suggested that the diverse astronomy-related applications contributed positively to the students’ behavioral outcomes (Benli Özdemir, 2022; Aktürk, Yazıcı & Bulut, 2013; Kulaca, 2023; Çelik, Güleç & Atasoy, 2025; Karamustafaoğlu & Aktürk, 2016; Likavcan, 2024; Uçar & Aktamış, 2019).
No significant difference was found between the control group’s pre-test and post-test scores in the behavioral dimension of astronomy literacy. Since only the social studies curriculum was implemented and no astronomy-focused applications were introduced, the findings indicated that the content of the social studies program alone did not sufficiently support the development of students’ astronomy literacy or related behavioral skills. However, previous studies demonstrated that the students’ astronomy competencies could be enhanced through the use of diverse, targeted applications (Aktamış & Arıcı, 2013; Peten & Şirin, 2020).
A significant difference in the behavioral dimension of astronomy literacy was revealed between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups, in favor of the experimental group. This particular result indicated that the instructional activities implemented in the experimental group effectively enabled the students to attain the behavioral competencies required for astronomy literacy. Consistent with this finding, numerous studies reported that the diverse astronomy-related activities enhanced the students’ academic performance and strengthened their skills related to space and astronomy (Tian, Endo, Urata, Mouri & Yasuda, 2014; Taşcan, 2019; Kalkan & Yener, 2022).
A significant difference was identified between the pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups in the behavioral dimension of astronomy literacy when examined in relation to gender. In the experimental group, the male students exhibited more positive behavioral changes toward astronomy compared to the female students. In contrast, no significant gender-related differences were observed among the students in the control group.
This is possible to attribute this result to the absence of any instructional applications in the control group that could have generated a positive effect. Overall, the findings indicated that the activities implemented to enhance the students’ astronomy literacy made a meaningful contribution to the development of students’ cognitive, affective and behavioral competencies (De Beasi et al., 2015; Love, Murphy & Bonora, 2013; Remie, 2019; Salimpour et al., 2024; Ünal, 2024).
• Astronomy applications such as StarWalk, Skymap, and GoogleEarth, which actively engage students in lessons to develop cognitive, affective, and behavioral skills, can be used.
• Activities such as adaptations of Taboo games, concept puzzles, and flashcards related to astronomy topics can be conducted. • Different and fun teaching methods such as the case study method and evidence-based teaching method can be used in social studies lessons.
• To improve astronomy literacy, schools should be equipped with the essential materials and equipment such as telescopes, sky observation tools, and appropriate technological resources that support practical and inquiry-based learning experiences.
• In-service training programs can be provided for the social studies teachers to enhance their awareness of astronomy and to support the effective integration of astronomy-related content into their instructional practices.
• Students may be taken on annual visits to space-related museums or educational centers to enrich their learning experiences and strengthen their interest in astronomy.
• Astronomy advancements and educational programs implemented by the leading space-faring nations can be scrutinized and adapted for use within the Turkish education system to enhance the quality and scope of astronomy instruction.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esra Benli ÖZDEMİR for allowing me to use the Astronomy Literacy Scale in the preparation of this study and Dr. Erkan YILMAZ for checking the language.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflict of interests
The Authors that there is no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Institutional Review Board Statement
This study was conducted in strict accordance with the ethical standards of research involving human participants and in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The research protocol was reviewed and approved by the Bursa Uludag University Research and Publication Ethics Committee / Social and Human Sciences Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Approval Number: [2023-07], Approval Date: [August 25, 2023]).
Prior to participation, informed consent was obtained from all participants. The participants were informed of the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks and benefits, as well as their right to withdraw at any stage without any negative consequences.
All ethical considerations were observed, including the confidentiality of personal information, voluntary participation, and data protection in accordance with application.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, data curation, methodology, writing- original draft, M.E.Ç; Software, Visualization, writing- review & editing, validation S.G.; formal analysis, funding, research, project management, resources, and supervision were all performed by M.E.Ç and S.G.
All authors read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.