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Lazović et al. (2022). The correlation between father involvement and the academic achievement of their children: meta-

analysis, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 10(3), 53-60.

Introduction

Student academic success is a major concern in many societies. Parental involvement is an important

factor in student achievement, and numerous studies have shown that parental involvement increases

student achievement (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Blazer, 2009; Galindo and Sheldon, 2012). However,

little is known about the individual contributions of mothers and fathers to their children’s education,

as most studies have not differentiated between maternal and paternal involvement. Studies that have

made this distinction have mostly focused on mothers (Kim and Hill, 2015), although researchers have

suggested that fathers also play an important role (Lamb, 1975; Amato, 1994; Sarkadi et al., 2008). Few

studies have been done on this topic, and those that have been done are mostly qualitative studies, while

there are few studies that can offer quantitative data on the effect of fathers’ involvement in children’s

academic performance (Fan, 2001).

Father’s involvement has become one of the more current topics in education today (Coles, 2015).

In the small number of studies dealing with fathers’ involvement and children’s academic success, it is not

clear which aspects of involvement are most important (Paquette, 2004).

The very notion of father involvement dates to the 1980s. It is believed to have been conceived

between 1984-1987 (Pleck and Masciadrelli, 2004), and in a paper from 1987, Michael Lamb was one

of the rst to offer the operationalization of this term through three dimensions: interaction (engagement)

- availability - responsibility (Lamb, 1987; according to Krampe, 2009). There have also been attempts

to dene father involvement through 4 dimensions: expectations, interest, school involvement and family

involvement (Fagan and Palm, 2004).

The Correlation Between Father Involvement and The Academic

Achievement of Their Children: Meta-Analysis

Nataša Lazović1* , Jelena Krulj2 , Slađana Vidosavljević3 , Emilija Marković4

1Faculty of Teacher Education Prizren – Leposavic and Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, University of Pristina – Kosovska

Mitrovica, e-mail: natasa.mladenovic@pr.ac.rs

2,3,4Faculty of Teacher Education Prizren – Leposavic, University of Pristina – Kosovska Mitrovica,

e-mail: jelena.krulj@pr.ac.rs; sladjana.vidosavljevic@pr.ac.rs; emilija.markovic@pr.ac.rs

Abstract: Parental involvement is an important factor in students’ achievement, and numerous studies have shown that it

increases students’ success. As research on father’s involvement has become one of the current topics in education today, there

is a need to separate the effect exercised by fathers from the overall family one. The aim of this study is to synthesize various

studies which have focused on different aspects of fathers’ involvement; therefore, a meta-analysis would be an ideal method to

create a synthesis of these perspectives and provide one general measure of fathers’ involvement effect. Nine studies have been

included in the meta-analysis, where fathers’ involvement has been operationalized through father’s involvement in: education

of children at school and at home, psychosocial well-being of children, modelling of behavior and leisure activities. The results

show that the total measure of effect size differs from zero after applying the xed model (z=13.510, p=0.000) and the random

effect model (z=4.588, p=0.000), that is, there is a statistically signicant positive correlation between the involvement of fathers

and the academic success of their children. The value of the heterogeneity test (Q=66.560, df=8, p=.000, I2=87.981) indicates

that the overall effect can be viewed according to the assumptions of the random effects model. The conducted meta-analysis

has conrmed the assumption that fathers’ involvement is positively related to children’s academic performance.

Keywords: father’s involvement, academic achievement, children, meta-analysis.

Original scientic paper

Received: September, 01.2022.

Revised: November, 08.2022.

Accepted: November, 17.2022.

UDK:

37.091.26:[37.015.3:159.953

316.362.32

10.23947/2334-8496-2022-10-3-53-60

Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

*Corresponding author: natasa.mladenovic@pr.ac.rs

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Lazović et al. (2022). The correlation between father involvement and the academic achievement of their children: meta-

analysis, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 10(3), 53-60.

There are several basic changes to the father’s role over time. First, the changes concern the

perception of the father as a parental gure - from the father as the breadwinner of the family, with an

emphasis on the material aspect of the role, through the father as a biological necessity, to the father as

a parent - in terms of the effects on the development of both the child and the father personally. Also, the

concept of the tasks of fatherhood changed - from a father who had the position of moral supervision, to

a father who is required to be dexterous in understanding and monitoring the child. Related to this is the

change in the concept of fatherhood - from the dominance of the father’s goals and the family program

intended for the child, to parenthood as a process by which the child’s development, characteristics and

goals are met, directed and integrated. Considering these changes in the role of the father motivated

by the historical context, sociologically oriented scholars describe two social aspects of these changes.

One of them is the culture of fatherhood and it includes norms, values, beliefs about a man as a parent.

Second aspect is implementation or behavior in the role of father. These two aspects do not necessarily

have to be synchronous, and it is assumed that the culture changed (and is changing) faster than the

behavior itself as a form of adaptation to changes (Lamb, 2000). Although there is a signicant shift from

the role of the father as a nurturer to the father as a guardian (Atkinson and Blackwelder, 1993), recent

studies indicate that the role of the father in society is still shown to be decient in various ways compared

to the role of the mother as a parent (Phelke et al., 2009). The fact is that the 1990s have been declared

the “decade of fathers” which brought with it a major shift in research attention devoted to types of fathers,

father involvement, the effects of father presence and involvement, fathers’ parenting behavior, father-

child interaction, etc. (Tan and Golbderg, 2009). Modern generation of men, often known as “modern

fathers”, consists of individuals who reject the paternal practices of previous generations, actively and

consciously participate in the development of children and spend more time with their children (Gottzen,

2011; Yogman and Eppel, 2022; Trahan and Cheung, 2016). Modern fathers strive to connect with their

children, and focus on the emotional aspect (Carrillo et al., 2016). Moreover, fathers more often than

mothers describe parenthood as a central part of their identity (Yogman and Eppel, 2022). Interestingly,

there is a growing population of activist fathers who are gaining more attention through social media, by

writing and reporting on fathers’ contributions to child development and their fathering practices today

(Scheibling, 2020).

There are multiple conceptualizations of father involvement and attempts to dene the father’s

role in childcare. We will mention some of them. Social-structural approach (father’s involvement as an

aspect of division of labor), developmental approach (father’s involvement as a result of developmental

changes and adaptation), father’s involvement as a social role (ecological theory), father’s involvement as

a behavioral aspect of parental identity… When we talk about the assessment of father involvement after

overcoming the dichotomy of understanding the father’s role as present or absent, the focus of research

has become the type of involvement, the time and aspects of father involvement, the nature, reasons

and context of father involvement. In this sense, great research and theoretical attention is devoted to

the understanding of personal factors that have effects on its optimum solution. Addressing individual

development and characteristics as potential determinants of father involvement in childcare has opened

several very important domains of potential determinants. Fatherhood is one of the important aspects

of family development, too. In addition, it is important to look at fatherhood in the context of society.

Employed fathers who have positive emotional experience at work, such as autonomy at work, a sense

of belonging to a team and job satisfaction, are associated with a more pronounced emotional closeness

with the child, even when the father spends less time with him (Day and Padilla-Walker, 2009). The

involvement of fathers has positive effects on children at all ages. The relationship with the father remains

signicant even in adulthood. The quality of the relationship with the father signicantly contributes to

life satisfaction, a lower expression of distress in adulthood, regardless of the quality of the relationship

with the mother (Amato, 1994; Chung et al., 2020). Long-term effects on adult children’s life satisfaction

and mental health and better adaptive capacities in adulthood (Lewis and Lamb, 2003) have also been

observed in another research. Apart from the children, the father’s involvement has a positive impact on

his personal development and the development of the family.

Some evidence suggests that fathers are spending more time with their offspring than they did in the

past (Lamb, Pleck and Levine, 1985), although these ndings are not consistent (Coverman and Shelley,

1986). In any case, most researchers agree that fathers’ involvement is important for men themselves,

their children, and their wives (Baruch and Barnett, 1986; Easterbrooks and Goldberg, 1984). Fathers who

spend more time caring for their children may inuence the development of secure attachment (Palkowitz,

1985), and their children benet from these improved attachments (Lamb, 1975; Lamb, 1980).

School-aged children whose fathers are involved in care, upbringing and education achieve better

academic results. They receive higher grades more often, have better quantitative and verbal abilities

www.ijcrsee.com

Lazović et al. (2022). The correlation between father involvement and the academic achievement of their children: meta-

analysis, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 10(3), 53-60.

(Campbell, 1973; Goldstein, 1984), have higher grade point averages, and generally perform better on

tests than their peers (Astone and McLanahan, 1991; Cooksey and Fondel, 1996). Children of involved

fathers are more likely to live in homes that are cognitively stimulating (Jeynes, 2007). Also, they prefer

to enjoy school, have more positive attitudes towards school, get involved in school-related activities…

Epstein divides fathers’ involvement in children’s education into six dimensions: parenting (helps

the family, provides support, understands child and adolescent development, adjusts the climate in the

home to be conducive to learning and development); communication (communicates with children and

the rest of the family about school programs, the child’s progress, etc.; creates two-way communication

between school and home); volunteering (encourages family members to volunteer at school and in the

community); learning at home (involves family members in learning at home, doing homework, setting

goals, etc.); decision-making (involves the family in decisions about the school the children attend,

participates in committees and other school bodies); cooperation with society (Epstein, 2007).

Although expectations regarding fatherhood have increased, the parenting literature is still more

focused on mothers. Mothers are believed to be more involved in childcare and education than fathers

(Amato, Dorius and Lamb, 2010). The literature related to fatherhood does not offer much material related

to father involvement and children’s education.

The decision to conduct a synthetic study looking at the effects of father involvement on children’s

academic performance arose from the lack of meta-analyses on this topic. In the literature, we found at

least 10 meta-analyses dealing with the effects of parental involvement on various aspects of children’s

academic life (Fan, 2001; Jeynes, 2007, 2012; Hill and Tyson, 2009). There are meta-analyses looking at

the effects of father involvement on children’s cognitive development (Pedersen, Rubinstein and Yarrow,

1979). Also, most authors show more interest in family structure and parental involvement than they

do in father involvement (Jeynes, 2015). Likewise, different studies have focused on different aspects

of fathers’ involvement, and therefore a meta-analysis would be an ideal method to synthesize these

different perspectives and provide one general measure of effect.

Materials and Methods

Literature search and criteria for including papers in the meta-analysis procedure

The literature search was conducted during January and February 2022 and included the papers

from the English-speaking area. The rst database that was searched was Google Scholar using the

key words: father involvement + child academic achievement; paternal involvement + child academic

success/ grades/ attainment; father parenting + child cognitive outcomes. 43 potentially relevant papers

were checked considering the title that indicated the involvement of fathers. A subsequent search using

the same/similar keywords was followed by a search of databases and the Science Direct search engine,

where 21 potentially relevant papers were found. Three papers that were found by searching through

Google Scholar were duplicates. As for the Ebsco database, 5 potentially relevant papers and a Springer

link where most of the papers were the same as in previous search engines and databases, and the

number of potentially relevant papers was 9. The results of the search carried out in this way yielded 78

potentially relevant titles that could be included in the meta-analysis. An extensive review of the papers

that were available (12 papers could not be opened) revealed that in 21 papers there are unclear indicators

of academic success of children, and therefore they were excluded from further analysis. Also, 16 papers

were the result of a repeated search, 7 papers were not empirical but theoretical, and 14 papers did

not contain the data needed to calculate the effect size. Each research and study included in the meta-

analysis had to meet the following criteria:

1) In the studies, the following operationalizations were accepted as measures of Father’s

Involvement, which resulted from the search of primary research and theoretical papers dealing with

the involvement of fathers: - father’s involvement in children’s education from the school aspect (visiting

school, participating in school events, visiting school on open-school days and parent-teacher meetings;

fathers’ involvement in children’s education at home (writing homework, helping with learning), father’s

involvement related to children’s psychosocial well-being (conversations with children about their problems,

needs, wishes, involvement in their daily life and problems, warmth, openness), father’s involvement in

modeling and correcting children’s behavior, father’s involvement in leisure activities (playing with children,

watching TV, going for a walk...). Measures of fathers’ involvement were self-report questionnaires or

questionnaires lled out by children about their perception of fathers’ involvement.

2) Grade point average was used as a measure of the academic achievement (performance) of

children, provided by children, teachers or parents. Also, variables that were quantied as a measure of

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Lazović et al. (2022). The correlation between father involvement and the academic achievement of their children: meta-

analysis, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 10(3), 53-60.

the most frequent grade at school (the most common grade 5, coded as 5) were also included. Studies

that assessed children’s general cognitive achievement were excluded.

3) The meta-analysis included papers published in scientic journals in English, as well as

unpublished sources. The methodological quality of the study was not used as an inclusion/exclusion

criterion on this occasion, given that the methodological requirements of the study are based on the

existence of descriptive indicators when it comes to the grade point average and correlation when it

comes to the involvement of fathers.

4) The Father Involvement variable was separated from other characteristics and variables in the

study. For example, if Father Involvement could not be isolated due to operationalization specics (e.g.,

Parental Involvement), such a study was not included in further analysis.

5) The imperative when conducting a meta-analysis is that the effect size measures from individual

studies are mutually independent, that is, that there is no duplication of data, that is, that the same data

are not included more than once in the analysis (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001). We made the decision that if

there are multiple measures of father involvement in the study, the mean value of the effect size measure

is calculated and that value is treated as the effect size measure in further analysis.

The nal number of studies included in the meta-analysis was 9.

Data analysis

Given that the subject of the meta-analysis is the correlation between fathers’ involvement and

children’s academic success, correlation coefcients were used as a measure of the effect size of individual

studies and the overall measure of effect size. There was a dilemma whether to apply a xed or random

effects model as a model for calculating the overall effect size measure. Given that the random effects

model can be reduced to a xed model if the variance between studies is close to zero (Bornstein et al.,

2009), both random and xed effect size measures will be conducted. The software used to calculate

individual and overall effect size measures is Comprehensive Meta-Analysis - trial version. Regarding

the assessment of the existence of the “the le drawer effect”, i.e., the bias of the effect size measure in

published versus unpublished studies, the graph of the symmetry of the studies around the overall effect

size measure and the results of the Trim and ll analysis are presented.

Results

Table 1

Meta-analysis: the correlation between fathers’ involvement and children’s academic success

It follows from the above results that the overall effect size measure is different from zero both after

applying the xed model (z = 13.510, p=0.000) and after applying the random effects model (z = 4.588,

www.ijcrsee.com

Lazović et al. (2022). The correlation between father involvement and the academic achievement of their children: meta-

analysis, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 10(3), 53-60.

p = 0.000), that is, there is a statistically signicant positive correlation between fathers’ involvement and

children’s academic success.

As for the heterogeneity of the effect size measure, the value of the heterogeneity test Q = 66.560,

df = 8, p = .000, I2 = 87.981 indicates that the true/total effect most likely does not vary signicantly within

the studies themselves, that is, that the data from individual studies can be viewed according to the

assumptions of the xed effect model.

The le drawer effect

The existence of the le drawer effect, i.e., the bias of the studies that were included in the meta-

analysis in relation to the study that was not, was also examined, which could have an impact on the

overall measure of the effect size. The results conducted so far indicate that the overall measure of effect

size does not differ between the random and xed effects models, so we will present results only for the

xed effects model.

Graph 1. Asymmetry of studies included in the meta-analysis

As we can see from the graph, the studies included in the meta-analysis are not evenly distributed

around the vertical axis, but there is a greater concentration of studies on the right side, but considering

that this is a very small difference, it cannot be assumed that it is “the le drawer effect” until a larger

sample is obtained. Trim and Fill analysis to correct the skewness indicates a lack of 1 study on the left

side of the vertical axis (overall effect size measures). By adding these studies, the effect size measure

within the xed model would be r = 0.15167 (95% condence interval = 0.12891- 0.17427), and within the

random effects model r = 0.15406 (95% condence interval 0.07322 – 0,23288). The dispersion measure

for the xed model is Q=66.55990, and for the random effects model Q=86.76070.

Discussion

The main and basic goal of this paper was to summarize the results of several studies and draw

general conclusions about the effect of fathers’ involvement on children’s academic performance. The

involvement of fathers has been given a well-deserved position in the scientic research eld in recent

decades. Many studies examine the effects of father involvement on various aspects of family, partnership,

and father-child relationships. During the literature search and the process of dening the problem to be

addressed with the meta-analysis, the aspect of fathers’ involvement in children’s academic performance

stood out as a relevant area and as an area on which we could not nd available synthetic studies. After the

problem was identied, data collection by sampling valid and relevant studies, following the established

operationalization, the statistical aggregation of the results of independent studies was started.

The results of the conducted meta-analysis indicate that there is a signicant overall effect, i.e.,

that there is a statistically signicant low positive correlation between fathers’ involvement and children’s

academic performance (r=0.161, 95%IP = 1.138-1.184, z = 13.510, p = 0.000 - xed model; r = 1.182.

95%IP = 0.105-0.256, z = 4.588, p=0.000 – random effects model). The measure of the size of the total

effect is signicant in both the xed and random effect models that do not rest on the same assumptions.

A xed effect model assumes that there is a single true effect and all variances are attributed to the study

sampling error. The random effects model, on the other hand, assumes that there is a distribution of

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Lazović et al. (2022). The correlation between father involvement and the academic achievement of their children: meta-

analysis, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 10(3), 53-60.

true effects and that the variance also comes from individual effects between studies. The heterogeneity

test tells us that the overall effect most likely does not vary signicantly within the studies themselves.

By calculating the “le drawer effect”, we cannot conclude that there is a bias in relation to the selection

of studies that will be included in the meta-analysis process. However, it should be borne in mind that 9

studies were included in this analysis, so calculating the symmetry of the distribution of studies using this

method is difcult, which is why the results should be interpreted with extra caution.

The meta-analysis that was conducted conrmed our assumption about the positive effect of

fathers’ involvement on children’s academic performance. Children from stable families have the privilege

of growing up with both parents by their side, which does not mean that if parents are present, they are

really involved in their children’s lives (Belsky, 2007; Miller et al., 2020). Primary research on the topic of

fathers’ involvement has mostly conrmed the assumption that fathers who are involved in raising their

children, as well as in their education, raise children who will have better quantitative and qualitative

results in school (Bing, 1963; Baker, 2018; Baker, Kainz and Reynolds, 2018). There are many benets

that father’s involvement has on children, in addition to academic performance; more self-condence, a

higher sense of responsibility, better capacities for cooperation with adults as well as with peers, all of

which contribute to equipping the child with skills and capacities that will facilitate the achievement of

high academic success (Hastings and Rubin, 1999). Also, research was done on the subject of father’s

involvement on the regularity of school attendance (Epstein and Sheldon, 2002) as well as on other

behavioral aspects of children related to school that also conrm the importance of father’s involvement

on positive outcomes. There is longitudinal research that proved big impact of father involvement into

educational activities of child on child’s cognitive outcomes, too (Cano, Perales and Baxter, 2019).

As it was said in the theoretical section of this research, some papers dealt with the involvement of

fathers and the academic success of children, but it was not emphasized which aspects of involvement

are the most important (Paquette, 2004; Henry et al., 2020). In this research, we tried to include as many

aspects of fathers’ involvement as possible: fathers’ involvement in children’s education related to the

school domain (visiting school, participating in school events, visiting school on open-school days and

parent-teacher meetings; fathers’ involvement in children’s education at home (writing homework, helping

with learning); father’s involvement in children’s psychosocial well-being (conversations with children

about their problems, needs, wishes, involvement in their daily life and problems, warmth, openness);

father’s involvement in modeling and correcting children’s behavior, fathers involvement in leisure activities

(playing with children, watching TV, going for a walk …).

Conclusions

The aim of this study was the synthesis of different researches which focused on different aspects

of father’s involvement and their connection with children’s academic achievement. After an extensive

search, nine studies were included in the nal analysis. The hypothesis about the positive effect of father’s

involvement on children’s academic performance was conrmed.

The limitations of this study are reected in the small sample of primary studies that were used in

the meta-analysis procedure (N=9), although on the other hand, this same disadvantage can be seen as

an advantage due to the appropriateness, quality and reliability of the data contained in the nal selection

of papers. In this meta-analysis, there were no restrictions on the geographical area from which the

participants come, so we have participants from Europe, but also from other continents (Mexico, Taiwan,

USA).

Studies from leading scientic journals were included in the narrow analysis, although this was not

the intention of the researchers. This could lead to study selection bias and to the effect of meta-analysis

results. In support of these limitations are graphical and quantitative indicators of the “le drawer effect”.

As a recommendation for the next meta-analysis that would address this topic, the moderating

inuence of some other variables from the domain of personality or family relationships could be

considered.

Regardless of the above-mentioned limitations and the fact that the results should be used

tentatively, this meta-analytical study can allow parents and experts who work with children (teachers)

to understand the importance that father’s involvement has on children’s development in general, and

especially on the academic aspect and academic achievement of their children.

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Lazović et al. (2022). The correlation between father involvement and the academic achievement of their children: meta-

analysis, International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education (IJCRSEE), 10(3), 53-60.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the reviewers who gave a valuable contribution to the quality of work by

giving constructive suggestions.

Conict of interests

The authors declare no conict of interest.

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